Aducanumab, developed by the biotechnology company Biogen in Cambridge, Massachusetts, is the first approved drug that attempts to treat a possible cause of neurodegenerative disease rather than just the symptoms.

But the FDA approval has sparked a contentious debate over whether the drug is effective. Many experts, including an independent panel of neurologists and biostatisticians, informed the FDA that clinical trial data did not conclusively demonstrate that aducanumab could delay cognitive decline. (2)

In other words, many experts believe that although this drug may seem revolutionary, there are still many steps to take to consider it a cure.

In return, the cost of the annual course of treatment will be $ 56,000. Even The Economist magazine points out that the introduction of the drug into circulation could become a significant burden for insurance companies.

Others worry that the approval of this new drug will have the opposite effect: People with Alzheimer’s could start to drop out of ongoing clinical trials to take aducanumab. Others worry that drug developers may abandon other targets.

“This will set the research community 10 to 20 years back,” says George Perry, a neurobiologist at the University of Texas at San Antonio and skeptical of this new drug and the amyloid hypothesis.

Read on to understand what this new Alzheimer’s drug is about and how it works.

Alzheimer’s Disease: What is it?

Alzheimer’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease first described in 1907 by the German psychiatrist Alois Alzheimer. According to data from 2018, around 52 million people worldwide suffer from this disease, and by 2050 the figure could reach 150 million.

Generally, the disease begins with minor symptoms that progress gradually. First, short-term memory disorders are observed, then long-term memory is disturbed. Infections of speech and cognitive functions occur, and the patient loses the ability to navigate and take care of himself.

In 2000, in the United States, approximately 1.6% of the population had Alzheimer’s disease. In the 75-84 age group, this figure was already 19%, and among citizens older than 84 years, the prevalence of the disease was significant at 42%.

Growing social burden

Alzheimer’s disease is considered the main burden of illness for society in developed countries.

The costs include both direct medical costs (such as nursing homes) and non-medical costs (home care) and indirect costs (lost productivity for both patient and caregiver).

The Amyloid Hypothesis

According to scientific research provided by Biogen, the maker of the new drug Aduhelm, the development of Alzheimer’s disease is associated with the accumulation of a kind of protein plaque in the brain that accumulates between neurons and disrupts their function.

We are talking about the beta-amyloid protein; According to the researchers who developed the new drug, high levels of this substance are associated with impaired cognitive functions of the brain. The new drug can delay the accumulation of protein plaques.

Aducanumab, an antibody infused intravenously, is the latest in many therapeutic candidates that aim to combat amyloid plaques. Although all drugs of this type have so far failed to improve cognition, questions remain as to whether β-amyloid is the correct drug, as well as whether researchers are testing the optimal therapeutic candidates, the proper doses, and the appropriate patients.

Researchers’ concerns now center on the tumultuous passage of aducanumab through clinical trials and the resulting data set, which is incomplete and unpublished.

Post-approval drug testing

As a condition for FDA approval, which was based on the agency’s “accelerated approval” program, Biogen must now conduct a “post-marketing” test to confirm that the drug can improve cognition. It has not yet released details on when and how this test will occur. Biogen has up to nine years to complete the test.

AFTER THE ROLLERCOASTER OF A CLINICAL TRIAL PROGRAM, the FDA’s decision to grant expedited approval to aducanumab could also have broader implications. “This opens the door for pharmaceutical companies looking to use the accelerated approval program to put drugs on the market based on low-quality evidence or a fishery for post-approval data. (2)

Who is the new Alzheimer’s drug for?

Aduhelm is recommended exclusively for people in the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease diagnosed with expensive scans. In practice, a monthly IV cycle is required in a medical facility.

The FDA has separately noted that the registration of a new drug will be withdrawn if the results of clinical trials are not satisfactory. It is important to note that patients need close monitoring, as many develop brain edema.

Forecasts

While there are many questions about the new Alzheimer’s disease drug, according to the Pharmaprojects industry database, there are 148 more drugs in clinical development, with only 15% targeting beta-amyloid.

At the same time, epidemiological studies suggest that some corrective factors (diet, risk of cardiovascular disease, medication, mental activity, and others) are associated with a decrease in the probability of developing the disease.

Intellectual activities (reading, board games, crossword puzzles, playing musical instruments, regular communication) can delay the onset of the disease or mitigate its development. Bilingualism has been associated with a late onset of Alzheimer’s disease.

ABSTRACT

Alzheimer’s disease and dementia remain among the most significant medical, social, and economic problems of the 21st century. Any new drug that can cure (or at least stop) the development of neurodegenerative processes is seen as a breakthrough in science. . However, the approval of drugs without a solid foundation can lead to surprises, even disappointments.

The new understanding that the brain is constantly changing has allowed us to better understand many problems that have traditionally been considered difficult to treat.

Anxiety and depression are one of those problems. Understanding neuroplasticity enables people to treat anxiety and depression through specific neuroplastic interventions.

Read on to find out how anxiety and depression are connected to neuroplasticity and what the scientific evidence says about this.

Neuroplasticity and depression

The connection between neuroplasticity and depression is good / bad news.

The bad news is that when it comes to psychiatric disorders, there is a kind of negative neuroplasticity; Depression can damage the brain, encouraging unhealthy pathways and discouraging healthy, adaptive pathways. (3)

In particular, changes in neuronal plasticity induced by stress and other negative stimuli have been confirmed to play an important role in the onset and development of depression. (3,4)

The good news is that some treatments for depression seem to be able to stop the damage and maybe even reverse it.

Research on neuroplasticity has shown us that “your everyday behaviors can have measurable effects on brain structure and function,” which can offer healing and recovery from psychiatric disorders. (2)

It may not be easy and it may require sustained effort, but we have the ability to “reshape” our brains at any age in ways that help us function better and reverse depression.

Using neuroplasticity to help with anxiety

The same principles that apply to depression apply to managing and treating anxiety disorders. Our brains are also perfectly capable of rewiring and remodeling to enhance our ability to control anxiety.

However, according to experts: any brain change is at the expense of other changes. The development of these parts of our brain that trigger anxiety effortlessly destroy those that help calm and trust.

It is not enough to simply stop anxiety at one point. The anxiety wiring is still there in the brain waiting to be activated.

Therefore, to combat anxiety with neuroplasticity we need to create a competitive wiring that is specific to what we want to achieve. Without this, we are in an endless loop of anxiety without a neural pathway to carry us forward.

These permanent brain changes can be achieved by adapting and changing thought patterns, through memory and recall patterns, breathing exercises, eye patterns, modification of postural habits, increased body awareness, focusing on the senses. , among others. (1)

ABSTRACT

Research on neuroplasticity has confirmed that this process is altered in people with depression and anxiety. The exciting thing is that we know we can change this. It may take concentration and repetition, but change is possible.

Basically, neuroplasticity can be applied to help you manage, treat, and maybe even cure anxiety and depression, but it takes some time and effort.

Although it certainly seems inexplicable, over the past few decades scientists have worked hard to study exactly how this occurs, and they have found the explanation behind the magic: neuroplasticity.

The term may sound technical, but it basically refers to your brain’s ability to change to adjust to the environment.

Since the brain is fundamental to everything we think and do, taking advantage of neuroplasticity is important to improve our well-being and why not find our way to success.

Read on to find out what exactly is neuroplasticity and how to adapt your brain in a positive way.

What is neuroplasticity?

Neuroplasticity can be defined as the ability of the brain to modify its structure in response to experience.

Neuroplasticity occurs as a reaction to new information, sensory stimulation, or brain damage. And it is considered as a complex fundamental property of the nervous system that is associated with learning and memory. (3)

A key point that is not generally understood about neuroplasticity is that it is always happening. Everything we do changes our brain.

Whatever the experience, be it an action or a thought, the brain adapts and changes so that we improve in that activity and over time it becomes easier, even automatic.

But not all experiences are the same when it comes to neuroplastic changes. Those learnings necessary for survival or where a threat is detected, have priority in the brain wiring.

So, neuroplasticity works throughout life. Over time the connections within the brain become stronger or weaker, depending on the connections that are used and what their “importance” is.

Regarding age, of course, the brain of a child or young person changes more easily; their brains are very plastic. But the important thing is that an adult can also, through certain behaviors, access significant levels of neuroplasticity.

Why is neuroplasticity important?

When your brain is injured or damaged by disease, it is neuroplasticity that allows it to heal. In addition, when faced with an event or thought, this phenomenon is what allows the brain to reorganize its physical structure to obtain behaviors that are beneficial to the body.

Therefore, neuroplasticity is important not only to help you recover from a traumatic brain injury or stroke, but it can also help you improve your well-being. Reconfiguring your brain can help you establish better habits that contribute to your health and success.

Neuroplasticity also appears promising as a potential treatment engine for certain mental health conditions and learning disabilities. This is where therapy and rehabilitation play an important role; These methods are used to repair old neural pathways or create new ones.

How does it work?

Neuroplasticity is important yes. But … how does it work?

When executing an action (or thought) an electrical stimulus is generated between two neurons. The repetition of this stimulus generates morphological (in the form) and genetic (in the genes) changes that have as a consequence the increase or loss of connectivity between neurons.

In these processes, there are several molecular protagonists, calcium is one of them. As well as a great variety of enzymes and proteins that fulfill functions of great importance for the membranes of neurons.

That is the physical basis of why repeating a thought or an action over and over again increases its power and therefore neuroplasticity. Over time, this becomes automatic; a part of us. We literally become what we think and do.

7 ways to increase neuroplasticity

In the last 30 years, evidence shows that the adult brain is not as fixed as previously thought, it has even been shown that neuroplasticity can occur even in the last stages of life. (1,2)

Neuroplasticity happens on a daily basis, but it is also something that we can absolutely encourage, enhance and stimulate from home. Here are some ways to rewire your brain and increase neuroplasticity:

• Intermittent fasting : This type of diet has been shown to increase synaptic adaptation, promote neuron growth, improve general cognitive function, and decrease the risk of neurodegenerative disease.
• Travel: exposes your brain to new stimuli and new environments, opening up new pathways and activity in the brain.
• Learning a musical instrument – can increase connectivity between brain regions and help form new neural networks;
• Non-dominant hand exercises : can form new neural pathways and strengthen connectivity between neurons
• Use of mnemonic devices: memory training can improve connectivity in the prefrontal parietal network and prevent some age-related memory losses.
• Reading fiction or novels: increases and improves connectivity in the brain
• Expand your vocabulary or learn a new language: activates visual and auditory processes, as well as memory processing
• Art: Improves the connectivity of the brain at rest (the “default mode network” or DMN), which can boost introspection, memory, empathy, attention and attention.
• Dancing: reduces the risk of Alzheimer’s and increases neuronal connectivity
• Sleep: promotes retention of learning through the growth of dendritic spines that act as connections between neurons and help transfer information through cells

ABSTRACT

What is neuroplasticity? A characteristic of our brain that allows it to adapt to our experiences.

Neuroplasticity is neither good nor bad. It is just a mechanism in our brain. It happens every day, whether you like it or not, but how it happens, we can learn to influence it.

How does it work? With each repetition of a thought or emotion, we reinforce a neural pathway, and with each new thought, we modify the connections between neurons.

These small changes lead to major physiological changes in our brain that ultimately alter our behavior.

To increase the neuroplasticity of the brain there are several methods, for example reading, creating, learning a new language or instrument. In a way, the most important thing is to allow yourself the constant search for new stimuli.

However, in recent years, the use of nootropics has spread to university communities (they are used by students to pass their exams) and even by professionals or others who seek to increase their intellectual capacity.

While health experts generally agree that taking a prescribed nootropic for a justified medical purpose, the use of cognitive enhancers in healthy people is more than controversial.

This article describes what nootropics are, some examples, and what their effects are. They’re safe?

What are nootropics?

The word nootropics derives from the Greek words NOOS – mind and TROPEIN – spin. In some way, the term nootropics refers to any natural or synthetic substance that can have a positive impact on mental abilities.

Scientifically it is a heterogeneous group of drugs developed for dementia and other brain disorders. Nootropics produce pharmacological effects, whose mechanisms of action are very different.

Nootropics are capable of increasing cognitive executive functions, memory, creativity or motivation. As cognition is one of the superior activities of the human brain, the concept of nootropic seems quite attractive to many people who aspire to better and longer mental activity.

Examples of nootropics

There are a large number of drugs and natural substances that can be used as cognitive and memory enhancement agents. Some examples of nootropics are:

1. Modafinilo

The modafinil a psychostimulant drug with properties eugeroicas (promoter alertness) and neuroprotective different stimulants amphetamine stimulants type and other central nervous system (CNS).

It was originally approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of narcolepsy, obstructive sleep apnea, and shift sleep disorders. Today, it is one of the most widely used and most powerful nootropics.

Modafinil significantly reduces feelings of fatigue and improves memory in sleep-deprived adults. It also improves executive functioning or the ability to properly manage your time and resources to achieve your goals.

Although modafinil is generally considered non-addictive, dependency has been reported at high doses. (3) Therefore, while Modafinil appears to have strong nootropic effects, it is only available by prescription in most countries.

Even when Modafinil is prescribed, it is important to use this drug responsibly.

2. Piracetam

Piracetam is considered the first nootropic drug of its kind.

It is a synthetic derivative of the neurotransmitter GABA, a chemical messenger that helps slow down the activity of the nervous system. However, piracetam does not seem to affect your body in the same way as GABA.

While researchers are still not entirely sure how it works, some studies link the drug to several benefits, including better brain function, a reduction in dyslexia symptoms, and fewer myoclonic seizures.

Although piracetam is widely available in online stores as a supplement and promoted as a smart drug, research on its effectiveness is still lacking.

3. Caffeine

The caffeine is the most consumed nootropic in the world. It is found naturally in coffee, cocoa, tea, guarana, maté among others. It is also added to many sodas, energy drinks, and medications.

Caffeine works by blocking adenosine receptors in your brain, making you feel less tired. A low to moderate caffeine intake of 40 to 300 mg is considered safe and significantly increases alertness and attention.

4. Noopept

Noopept is a synthetic smart drug developed at the Institute of Pharmacology of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences.

It is one of several nootropics developed based on the structure of piracetam. Its advantage over piracetam is that it can be taken at a lower dose.

Its mechanism of action is based on providing a general neuroprotective effect, increasing acetylcholine signaling, and increasing the inhibition of neurotransmission in the brain. (6)

Like piracetam, its clinical results have shown good results as a treatment for certain diseases. However, more research is still needed to confirm its effectiveness.

5. Citicolina

Citicoline is a brain chemical that occurs naturally in the body. As a nootropic drug, it is taken orally or given as injections.

Citicoline appears to increase a brain chemical called phosphatidylcholine. This brain chemical is important for brain function. Citicoline may also increase the amount of other chemicals that send messages to the brain.

In Japan and Europe, citicoline was originally used as a prescription drug to help improve memory and brain function in people recovering from stroke.

Additionally, citicoline can help memory loss due to aging, improve vision in people with glaucoma, and is also used for Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, bipolar disorder, lazy eye, and other brain conditions.

6. Nicotine

Nicotine is a naturally occurring chemical found in many plants, especially tobacco. It is one of the compounds that make cigarettes so addictive.

It can also be consumed through nicotine gum or absorbed through the skin using a nicotine patch.

Studies show that nicotine can have nootropic effects, such as improved alertness and attention, especially in people with naturally low attention spans.

It has also been found to improve motor function. Also, chewing nicotine gum is linked to better handwriting speed and fluency.

However, this substance can be addictive and lethal in high doses, so caution should be exercised with its consumption.

7. Ritalina

Ritalin is a nootropic that was introduced during the 1950s to treat chronic fatigue, depression, and psychosis associated with depression.

It is a stimulant nootropic that increases the concentrations of dopamine and norepinephrine in your brain.

It was widely used in the 1990s to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and is now the most common psychotropic medication prescribed to children to treat restlessness and inattention.

New research has explored the possible side effects of ritalin use by people without ADHD, such as students using it as a study enhancer.

This research showed changes in brain chemistry associated with risky behaviors, sleep disruptions, and other effects such as weight loss.

It can also cause hallucinations, psychosis, seizures, cardiac arrhythmias, and high blood pressure , particularly when taken in high doses. Ritalin is a powerful stimulant that should only be taken as prescribed and closely monitored for abuse.

8. Creatine

The creatine is a compound formed by three amino acids your body used to produce proteins. It is a sports supplement that promotes muscle growth, but it is also beneficial for your brain.

Creatine can enter your brain where it binds with phosphate, creating a molecule that your brain uses to rapidly feed your cells.

This increased availability of energy to brain cells is related to improved short-term memory and reasoning skills, especially in vegetarians and highly stressed people.

Studies show that taking up to 5 grams of creatine daily and cyclically is safe. Larger doses can cause long-term negative effects. (5)

What are they for? – Applications

Nootropics have several uses, the most important of which are as a treatment for diseases of the nervous system. In addition, nootropics serve to improve performance or mental fitness in the short term, that is, to force your brain to work more efficiently.

This use of nootropics could be considered as an analogue to a bodybuilder taking steroids for the muscles, but for the mind. That is, they allow an individual to overcome their natural genetic limitations.

Here are the main uses of nootropics:

1. Neurodegenerative disorders

Nootropics are used to treat various diseases of the brain, for example Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s disease, dementia, and the cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia. (1)

2. Sleep disorders

People with sleep disorders such as: narcolepsy, excessive daytime sleepiness, and shift work disorder often benefit from stimulant medications, many of which are considered nootropics.

3. Chronic fatigue syndrome

People with CFS (chronic fatigue syndrome) need medication in order to function. The energy drinks only help these people to some extent. Therefore, a psychostimulant or nootropic drug such as Nuvigil is often prescribed.

4. Treatment resistant depression

Some people may get a prescription for multiple nootropics as a result of having depression resistant to classic treatment. For example, some psychiatrists may consider prescribing Adderall for depression as an antidepressant augmentation strategy.

5. Academic advantage

In academia, students use nootropics to help them remember more, increase concentration, and study more efficiently. Students are taking these medications to help improve test scores.

6. Biohacking

Some people use nootropics as a means of biohacking . In general, the people who are attracted to this use are people who seek to alter their natural biological state of functioning. Many people undergo nootropic “tests” to determine what the effects are on their mental functioning as a result.

7. Sports

Many nootropics are known to enhance the performance of athletes. They can increase focus, spatial orientation, and allow an athlete to outperform.

8. Rehabilitation of addictions to drugs of abuse

Due to their tolerability and broad mode of action, some notropics such as modafinil are used as therapeutic agents for cocaine dependence. (2)

ABSTRACT

Nootropics or smart drugs is a broad term that refers to all synthetic and natural substances capable of increasing mental function.

Examples of strong nototropics are prescription drugs such as modafinil or ritalin; And while they are capable of improving memory and attention, they can have side effects.

Examples of milder and safer nootropics are noopept and piracetam, the effectiveness of which is not entirely clear yet.

The use of nootropics and smart drugs is increasing, although more research is still needed to better understand their effects and benefits on the brain.

The keywords for this new approach to the brain are neuroplasticity and neurogenesis. Neuroplasticity refers to the brain’s permanent ability to change and reconfigure itself in response to stimulation of learning and experience. Neurogenesis is the ability to create new neurons and neural connections throughout life.

As you might expect, neuroplasticity definitely declines with age. However, this is not as black and white as was believed a few years ago. Read on to find out how this happens.

Neuroplasticity and age

Neuroplasticity is the brain’s ability to adapt to the environment, and it benefits from brain training to try to slow down the aging process.

When neuroplasticity occurs, both neurons and synapses increase in number. And as time passes, our actions and thoughts are able to reinforce certain neural pathways that generate important physiological changes in the brain.

With age, the brain’s ability to change is less, but it exists therefore more effort is required.

This is much more complex than it sounds, but it is the basis for why there is a clear relationship between neuroplasticity and aging.

While not all aspects of the relationship between neuroplasticity and age are completely clear even to neuroscience experts, what we know today is that:

• Although neuroplasticity can decrease with age, several factors, such as exercise and stress, have been shown to affect one or more mechanisms of plasticity.
• Neurogenesis (growth of new neurons) can be a mechanism that supports plasticity and occurs at all stages of life.
• The connections between neurons increase dramatically between birth and two or three years of age; they are reduced by half during adolescence and remain mostly static during adulthood.
• People with greater plasticity and memory in adulthood are those who have developed specific skills and healthy lifestyles when young.
• Certain events, such as brain damage, can significantly affect neuroplasticity.

Neuroplasticity in children

Children’s brains are the ones with the greatest plasticity. Neurons and synapses experience a great increase in number even before a person can perform basic functions such as talking and walking.

Between birth and two to three years of age, the number of synapses in the brain increases from 2,500 to 15,000 per neuron. In fact, an average child has twice as many synapses as an adult. (1)

These connections are slowly eliminated as the child grows and begins to form his own unique patterns and connections.

There are four main types of neuroplasticity seen in children:

• Adaptive – Changes that occur when children practice a special skill and allow the brain to adapt to functional or structural changes in the brain.
• Impairment: changes occur due to genetic or acquired disorders.
• Plasticity that makes the brain vulnerable to injury – Damaging neural pathways are formed that make injury more likely or more shocking.
• These processes are stronger and more pronounced in young children, allowing them to recover from injury much more effectively than most adults. In children, profound cases of neuroplastic growth, recovery, and adaptation can be seen.

Neorplasticity in adolescents

Between youth and adulthood, a phenomenon known as pruning occurs in the brain. Pruning is the reduction in the number of neurons and synapses that formed during early life.

This elimination is based on the experiences that the person has in life; the connections that a person uses most frequently are maintained and the weak connections are eliminated. By the time an individual reaches late adolescence, the number of synaptic connections between neurons has been reduced by about half.

Neuroplasticity in adults

Although the number of neurons and synapses was long thought to be static in adulthood, today this concept is viewed as erroneous.

Neuroplasticity is not absent in adults, but it is generally observed less than in children and with less force; however, the adult brain is still capable of extraordinary changes.

Evidence for neuroplasticity in the adult brain has been observed primarily in individuals who became adept at a particular skill. Why? Because the changes associated with learning happen in a massive way when we become experts in a specific domain.

Learning can cause the brain to increase the number of connections between neurons and is a typical example of neuroplasticity in adults.

In older adults, neuroplasticity can restore old and lost connections and functions that have not been used in some time, improve memory, and even improve general cognitive skills.

Neuroscience experts continue to work hard in their research to find patterns of behaviors that stimulate neuroplasticity in adults and help with certain diseases of the cerberus.

For example, one study proposes an effective memory training program combined with neurostimulation could increase gray matter thickness and thus affect functional activation patterns. (2)

Improving memory could reduce stress, improve mood,
sleep better, and perhaps even facilitate social interactions and activity levels.

ABSTRACT

Neuroplasticity is the brain’s ability to change and adapt to the environment.

Generally, the potential for change is not as great in older adults as it is in children and young adults, but with sustained effort and a healthy lifestyle, adults are just as capable of promoting positive change and growth in life. their brains like the younger generations.

The aging of the brain, its biological changes and alterations in our behavior, are as complex and idiosyncratic as the brain itself, and it is qualitatively modified throughout life.

Some amino acids can be synthesized naturally, these are the essential ones. The rest are defined as nonessential and conditional.

Read on to find out what the definition of amino acids is, what types there are, and how many are needed per day to reap its benefits.

What are essential amino acids? – Definition

Amino acids are organic compounds that are part of proteins, in total there are 20. They can be classified into different types according to their function or chemical structure.

By definition, essential amino acids are those that cannot be synthesized by the human body; so they must be included through food or dietary supplements.

The essential amino acids are 9: histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan and valine. The benefits of covering the recommended amount of these compounds range from improving muscle recovery processes, achieving hormonal balance, to fighting sleep disorders.

Types of amino acids

Amino acids can be classified into 3 types:

1. Essential amino acids

Essential amino acids are those that the body is not able to synthesize by itself, so they must necessarily be ingested from an external source through the diet. The essential amino acids are:

• isoleucina
• leucine
• lysine
• methionine
• phenylalanine
• threonine
• tryptophan
• histidine
• valina

2. Nonessential amino acids

Nonessential amino acids are those that can be synthesized by the body even if foods or supplements that contain them are not included. The body has the necessary tools to manufacture them. The non-essential amino acids are:

• to the girl
• arginine
• asparagina
• aspartic acid
• cysteine
• glutamic acid
• wisteria
• proline
• serine
• tyrosine

3. Conditional amino acids

This is one of the types of amino acids that refers to those that can change category depending on the health status of a person. Under stress or illness they can go from nonessential to essential. The conditional amino acids are:

• arginine
• cysteine
• glutamine
• tyrosine
• wisteria
• ornitina
• proline
• serine

And the branched chain amino acids?

Branched amino acids are those that are accompanied by a chain of extra atoms in the form of a branch on one side of their structure.

These types of amino acids are also known under the acronym BCAA, which stands for  B ranched- C hain  A mino  A cids  (branched or branched chain amino acids in English).

The main characteristic is its particular molecular geometry: a branch shape that comes out from its main structure. The branched amino acids are 3: valine, leucine and isoleucine.

When doing physical exercise at high intensities, these are the first to be extracted from the muscle fibers. That is why one of the benefits of taking branched- chain amino acids is to reduce the processes of muscle destruction.

Essential Amino Acids – Function and Structure

Here is a description of the function and structure of all essential amino acids:

1. Histidine

Histidine fulfills the function of regulating sleep processes, it is necessary for the synthesis of melatonin . A lack of this amino acid is associated with a higher chance of sleep disorders .

2. Lysine

This is one of the essential amino acids that plays a fundamental role in the absorption of calcium in the body. It also plays an important role in the regeneration of muscle tissue.

3. Valina

One of the 3 branched chain amino acids. Its main function is the regeneration of muscle mass, as well as it is of great importance to achieve a proper functioning of the liver. (2)

3. Isoleucina

The main function of isoleucine is the regulation of the immune system and the production of hemoglobin.

4. Isoleucina

Isoleucine is critical in the physiological functions of the entire body, such as growth, immunity, protein metabolism, fatty acid metabolism, and glucose transport. Isoleucine can enhance the immune system , including immune organs, cells, and reactive substances.

5. Methionine

Methionine has an antioxidant action and participates in the absorption of some microminerals such as zinc. Correctly absorbing zinc is essential for normal testosterone levels . (3)

6. Phenylalanine

The importance of phenylalanine is as a precursor of neurotransmitters: norepinephrine and dopamine. Its main function is the production of proteins and enzymes related to the nervous system. (1)

8. Tryptophan

The body needs tryptophan to make serotonin . When there is a lack of tryptophan in the body, brain function can be affected.

9. Threonine

Threonine is an essential amino acid for healthy skin. Its main function is to participate in the synthesis of collagen in the body. Thus it fulfills a fundamental function in the metabolism of fats. (4)

How many essential amino acids are needed per day?

The recommended amount of essential amino acids according to the World Health Organization is (4):

• Histidina: 14 mg
• Isoleucina: 19 mg
• Leucina: 42 mg
• Lysine: 38 mg
• Metionina: 19 mg
• Fenilalanina: 33 mg
• Treonina: 20 mg
• Tryptophan 5 mg
• Valina: 24 mg

The easiest way to reach these amounts is to eat proteins of high biological value , such as albumin .

Foods with essential amino acids

The recommended amount of these compounds can be covered with both plant and animal foods. Foods rich in essential amino acids are:

• meats
• Eggs
• Dairy products
• Cereals
• Pseudocereales
• Fruits of the sea

For a vegetarian, covering the dose of essential amino acids is usually more difficult. Including foods like quinoa , buckwheat, and amaranth is critical when adhering to this type of diet.

Cereals such as wheat, rice, and oats provide similar amounts to milk. The amount of essential amino acids in cereals can be seen in the following table:

Amount of essential amino acids in 100 g of food:

Benefits of essential amino acids

All amino acids can be provided correctly through food. The benefits of taking supplements with essential amino acids apply only when there is a lack in the diet. The benefits of taking essential amino acid supplements are:

1. Hormonal balance

One of the benefits of taking essential amino acids is the balance of sex hormones. Studies claim an improvement in GH and testosterone levels in men. (2)

2. Increased muscle strength and endurance

Taking essential amino acids (particularly branched ones) can improve muscle strength and endurance. The rationale: Taking supplements has seen significant drops in levels of the  stress hormone cortisol . (5)

3. Less muscle fatigue in older adults

Leucine is a branched essential amino acid that helps reduce muscle fatigue. Studies recommend taking a dose of leucine supplements can prevent muscle fatigue in older adults. (6)

4. Fight sleep disorders

Supplements that contain essential amino acids such as tryptophan and histidine are key to the synthesis of the sleep hormone. Including them when there is a lack can help combat sleep disorders such as: insomnia , shallow sleep and nightmares. (7)

5. Eliminate body fat

Although there is still more research to confirm what are the effects of supplements with essential amino acids in eliminating body fat . Some studies (8) suggest a positive link in burning fat without losing muscle mass.

Consequences of a lack of essential amino acids

Chronic lack of essential amino acids leads to a negative nitrogen balance and the development of vitamin absorption deficiencies. (1). The symptoms depend on what is missing in the diet, methionine being one of the most common. (9) The most frequent symptoms of a lack of essential amino acids are:

• Weakened immune system
• Loss of muscle mass
• Hormonal dysregulation
• Fatty liver
• Growth retardation in children and adolescents
• Dry skin and brittle nails
• Hair loss
• Loss of appetite
• Sleep disorders
• Anxiety and depression

ABSTRACT

By definition, essential amino acids are the components of proteins that cannot be synthesized by the human body; in total there are 9.

The recommended daily amount can be covered both with food and through supplements. Chronic lack of essential amino acids can cause all kinds of disorders in human metabolism.

The fastest and oldest cells and responses to microbes is known as innate immunity.

The name is due to the fact that it involves recognition and response mechanisms, which are inherited and ready to function rapidly.

Read on to learn what innate immunity is and how it works as the first line of defenses.

RELATED: How to Strengthen the Immune System?

What is innate immunity and what is its role?

Innate immunity (also called natural or native immunity) is the set of molecules and cells that respond almost immediately to the presence of damaged microbes and cells.

This system has a defined and limited recognition pattern, selected throughout the evolution of the species and that is not modified by repeated contact with the pathogen (virus or bacteria).

The main function of innate immunity is to defend against germs in the first hours or days after an infection.

Other functions of innate immunity cells are: to act as sentinels, to block the entry of microbes and to activate adaptive immunity .

Components of the innate immune system

The components of innate immunity reflect its specificity. They can recognize molecules shared by groups of microbes and molecules produced by damaged host cells.

The main components of innate immunity are:

1. Physical and chemical barriers

This category includes skin, mucosal epithelia, and antimicrobial molecules. Its main function is to block microbes and prevent them from entering the body.

2. Phagocytic cells

These types of cells are capable of ingesting microbes or foreign molecules and then destroying them. Some examples of phagocytic cells are: macrophages, dendritic cells, NK cells, and neutrophils . (The latter are the star effectors of innate immunity).

3. Blood proteins

The main component proteins of innate immunity are the members of the complement system, the pentraxins and the ficolins. These are important both to neutralize, and to signal and mark microbes in order to optimize and amplify the immune response.

How does the innate immune system work?

When a pathogen enters the body, it generates danger signals capable of activating innate immunity. These are the so-called PAMPS and DAMPS.

So the innate immune response can fight microbes through two main reactions:

1. By inflammation

After the entry of an infectious agent into the tissues, changes can develop in the blood vessels that increase their permeability. This is an innate response known as inflammation.

This enables large numbers of innate cells to be recruited at the site of infection to engulf microbes. Inflammation is a fundamental tool to amplify the immune response.

2. Inhibiting virus replication

The innate immune system can block viral infections by expressing type 1 interferons .

As the word suggests, interferons are a family of cytokines capable of interfering in the viral cycle. These molecules can activate genes capable of generating rapid changes to block viral transcription and replication.

Note: All innate immune responses are regulated by negative feedback mechanisms that limit possible damage to self tissues.

Why is innate immunity so important in fighting an infection?

Innate immunity is important to fight an infection because it is not only responsible for acting quickly and first, but it also plays a fundamental role as an activator of adaptive immunity.

In most cases, innate immunity is sufficient to fight infection. However, these mechanisms also lead to the production of molecules that stimulate adaptive immunity.

Without innate immunity, our body would not be able to produce inflammation and orchestrate the rest of the molecules that exist to combat and prevent possible damage from infectious agents.

ABSTRACT

Innate immunity is the set of molecules, cells and mechanisms whose function is to give a rapid response to an infection.

The innate immune system is the oldest evolutionarily, but that does not stop being specific. Its activation signals are the PAMPS and DAMPS.

The components of innate immunity are: chemical barriers, phagocytic cells and proteins that circulate in the blood.

The two main mechanisms of the innate immune system are the induction of inflammation and the inhibition of virus replication by type 1 interferons.

As the word suggests, adaptive immunity is one that arises in response to and adapts to infection.

The adaptive immune system is a vigorous and sophisticated defense system that enables an organism to fight off invading pathogens.

Through specific identification, the adaptive immune system amplifies the innate response, and generates immune memory.

These mechanisms serve to strengthen defenses after repeated exposure to the same aggression.

Read on to learn how adaptive immunity works and what are the components and mechanisms of this response system.

RELATED: How to Strengthen the Immune System?

What is the adaptive immune system?

By definition, adaptive immunity (also known as acquired or specific) is all the mechanisms, cells and molecules involved in the late response of the immune system .

To fight an infection, the adaptive immune system can take days, even weeks. And it is their answer, the one in charge of generating defense memory cells.

Unlike the innate immune system, the adaptive one is slower, but responds to a greater number of molecules.

That is, the adaptive immune system recognizes a larger number of microbial and non-microbial substances called antigens. And therefore their responses are more specialized and also stronger.

That is why although many microorganisms have evolved to avoid the innate immune response, they have not been able to do so towards adaptive immunity. In fact, this is the basis of vaccines.

Components of adaptive immunity

Most of the components of the adaptive immune system appeared later in evolution (approximately 360 million years ago in jawed vertebrates).

In terms of types, the components of adaptive immunity are less diverse than those of innate immunity but work together to reinforce protective mechanisms.

The main components of adaptive immunity are:

1. Cells – Lymphocytes

The key component cells of the adaptive immune system are lymphocytes . Generally speaking, there are two types of lymphocytes, also known as T and B cells.

Each lymphocyte has a unique specificity, so they are capable of recognizing a number of antigens equal to the number of lymphocytes that exist. (This is up to 1 trillion molecules)

Both B cells and T cells are derived from specific types of stem cells, called multipotent hematopoietic stem cells, in the bone marrow.

Once they are produced, the lymphocytes need to mature and activate. Each type of cell follows different paths to its final mature forms and serves a specific function.

2. Proteins – antibodies and cytokines

The main component proteins of adaptive immunity are antibodies and cytokines.

Antibodies act as specific probes directing the effector action of different types of cells that act on the pathogen. These appear as membrane receptors for B lymphocytes or are secreted by them once they have been transformed into plasma cells.

In particular, antibodies and the T lymphocyte receptor are the molecules that confer on the adaptive immune system the ability to specifically recognize any chemical structure that may enter the body, and on this basis mount an immune response adapted to the pathogen in question.

Cytokines are a large family of proteins with similar (homologous) structures that stimulate the movement of leukocytes and regulate their migration.

How does it work? – Response mechanism

To activate, adaptive immunity requires communication with innate immunity. For example, once the pathogen enters, the dendritic cells recognize it and travel to the ganglion.

Here the adaptive immune system initiates its response mediated by lymphocytes and their products.

When activated, lymphocytes with specificity for non-self or altered components (such as those of tumor cells) are stimulated to proliferate (increase in number) and differentiate (phenotypic changes).

The phenotypic changes give rise to the appearance of cells that will contribute to the destruction of the aggression. For example, capable of secreting antibodies.

Other lymphocytes turn into memory cells, which ensure a quicker and better response in case the infection reoccurs.

Why is the adaptive immune system specific?

One of the mechanisms that the adaptive immune system has to be able to respond is to function on the basis of a clonal distribution of receptors linked to specific recognition.

What does this mean? That in the process of generating lymphocytes, a membrane receptor with a certain specificity is produced randomly. That is, with the ability to react with a single chemical structure.

Note that this process has the risk of reacting against its own components. It is for this reason that tolerance mechanisms exist to eliminate self-reactive clones.

Then, once the repertoire of lymphocytes has been generated, a clonal selection mechanism operates by which clones with specificity for their own components are eliminated.

The role of the adaptive immune system in immune memory

Immune memory is defined as the ability of the immune system to respond more quickly and effectively to a previously encountered pathogen.

Memory cells are activated due to the body’s ability to recognize pathogens that the body has previously been in contact with.

Once the body creates the necessary antibodies to quell a pathogen, it can do so more quickly when it encounters it again in the future.

This occurs whether you are infected with a pathogen or inoculated with a weakened or dead form of it. It is thanks to immune memory that we can get vaccinated against infectious diseases.

ABSTRACT

The adaptive immune system is only present in vertebrates and, unlike the innate immune system, its responses are slower and specific to the particular invading pathogen.

The molecules that elicit an adaptive immune response are known as antigens.

The most important cells in the adaptive immune response are B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes. Together with antibodies and cytokines, they constitute the main components of the system.

The mechanisms of the adaptive immune system are diverse, but all require the work of lymphocytes in close communication with the innate immune system.

The immune system offers this protection through two main responses: innate and adaptive immunity.

Innate immunity is that rapid response with which an organism is born, and adaptive immunity is acquired after exposure to certain aggression.

This article briefly describes what each one consists of and what their main differences are.

What is innate immunity?

Innate immunity, also known as genetic or natural immunity cells includes molecules and mechanisms capable of responding almost immediately to the presence of microbes and damaged cells.

Innate immunity is what one is born with, it is written in the genes and offers protection for life. It is fast acting and always responds the same way – of course, depending on the specific virus or bacteria it detects.

The innate immune system encompasses physical barriers, chemical, and cellular defenses. For example the skin, eyelashes, ears, and mucous membranes. These defenses identify cellular pathogens and substances that are potentially dangerous and take the necessary steps to neutralize or destroy them.

The mechanisms of innate immunity provide an effective initial defense against a large number of infections. However, many pathogenic microbes have evolved to resist innate immunity and their elimination requires the most powerful mechanisms of adaptive immunity.

What is adaptive immunity?

Adaptive immunity is the acquired immunity of an organism to a specific pathogen.

Adaptive immunity is not immediate, and although it can last a lifetime, this does not always happen.

The adaptive immune response is mediated by the clonal expansion of T and B lymphocytes. These cells are released in many copies and are capable of generating responses to neutralize or destroy their antigen.

For example, B lymphocytes can differentiate to generate antibodies or generate memory cells. T lymphocytes can transform into specific cytotoxic cells to destroy viruses and bacteria.

Adaptive immune responses often work by enhancing the protective mechanisms of innate immunity, making them better able to effectively fight pathogenic microbes.

Differences between innate and adaptive immunity

There are numerous connections between the innate and adaptive immune systems. The innate immune response to microbes stimulates the adaptive immune response and influences the nature of adaptive responses. However, they have several differences in the level of action and detection of pathogens.

The following table summarizes the main differences between innate and adaptive immunity systems.

Table of main differences between innate and adaptive immunity

What cells are involved in innate and adaptive immunity?

There are many types of cells involved in immunity. In the innate immune response, these include macrophages, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, mast cells, dendritic cells, and NK cells.

Cells involved in the adaptive immune response include B cells (or B lymphocytes) and a variety of T cells (or T lymphocytes), including helper T cells and suppressor T cells.

Natural killer T cells and gamma-delta T cells are part of the innate and adaptive immune response.

Neutrophils are produced in the bone marrow, have a short half-life and are one of the effector cells of the immune system par excellence.

When a microbe (pathogen) enters our body, the immune system recognizes it and sends a large number of neutrophils to the site of infection to destroy it.

Read on to find out how neutrophils work, what their function is, and what it means to have high and low normal values.

RELATED: How to Strengthen the Immune System?

What are Neutrophils?

By definition, neutrophils are cells of myeloid lineage characterized by the presence of granules that contain enzymes and other toxic agents involved in the defense of the body. (1)

Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cell in the blood. White blood cells, also called leukocytes, are a key part of your immune system .

In fact, most of the white blood cells that lead the rapid response of the immune system are neutrophils. These cells make up 55 to 70 percent of the total circulating leukocytes in the blood.

Humans produce approximately 1 x ^10-11 neutrophils per day, each circulating in the blood for hours to days and then dying.

Its shape is almost spherical, with a diameter of approximately 12-15 μm with numerous membrane projections. Due to the shape of their nucleus, neutrophils are also known as polymorph nuclear leukocytes.

Neutrophils work in acute inflammation and provide an essential defense against acute bacterial infections. Neutrophil function abnormalities are rare and affect the ability to respond to life-threatening infections.

What are they for? – Function

When a microbe enters your body or has a minor injury, substances that your body sees as foreign trigger your immune system to kick in.

Neutrophils are important because they can engulf, produce, and release chemicals capable of killing microorganisms.

In particular, neutrophils are the main cells involved in the inflammation reaction. That is why these are the main effector cells of innate immunity to infection.

Unlike other white blood cells, neutrophils are not confined to a specific area of ​​the circulation. They can move freely through vein walls and into body tissues to immediately attack microbes.

In addition, neutrophils can release their content to the extracellular environment: what is known as NET traps. This mechanism has the function of trapping and destroying bacteria, but it also plays a role in promoting inflammation and thrombosis.

The role of neutrophils in the immune system is:

• Phagocytosis (especially opsonized microbes)
• Produce antimicrobial substances – reactive O2 species, defensins
• Promote inflammation – Chemotaxis
• Trapping microbes – by NET traps
• Other antimicrobial functions: activation of proteases

Normal, high and low values

To find out your neutrophil values, your doctor may ask you for an absolute neutrophil count (ANC).

This test can give your doctor important clues about your health. For example, help diagnose a disease, monitor an existing condition, or how your treatment is going if you are receiving chemotherapy.

An ANC is usually ordered as part of a complete blood count that measures the cells in your blood. It is important for your doctor to explain your test results to you. Results may vary depending on the person’s age, gender, heredity, or other factors.

Here is a table with high and low normal neutrophil values.

What Causes High Neutrophil Levels?

Having a high percentage of neutrophils in the blood is called neutrophilia. This is a sign that your body has an infection. Neutrophilia can indicate a number of conditions and factors, including:

• most likely bacterial infection
• non-infectious inflammation
• injury
• surgery
• Smoking cigarettes
• high stress level
• excessive exercise
• steroid use
• heart attacks
• chronic myeloid leukemia

What Causes Low Neutrophil Levels?

Neutropenia is the term for low levels of neutrophils. Neutropenia can last a few weeks or it can be chronic. It can also be a symptom of other conditions and diseases, and it increases your risk for more serious infections.

More often, low neutrophil counts are associated with the use of certain medications. But they can also be a sign of other factors or diseases, including:

• Chemotherapy treatment
• suppressed immune system
• bone marrow failure
• aplastic anemia
• congenital disorders, such as Kostmann syndrome and cyclic neutropenia
• hepatitis A, B, or C
• VIH / PAGE
• autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis
• leukemia
• myelodysplastic syndromes

ABSTRACT

Neutrophils are cells of myeloid lineage characterized by the presence of granules containing enzymes and other potentially toxic agents involved in host defense.

The key functions of neutrophils include phagocytosis and the degradation of foreign organisms, such as bacteria, through the activation of proteases and other molecules, as well as the generation of toxic oxygen radicals.

Neutrophils play a major role as the major inflammatory cells in many conditions and can be attracted to tissues by non-infectious stimuli such as activated complement components and inflammatory mediators.

Having high (neutrophilia) or low (neutropenia) levels of neutrophils can be an indicator of your health. That is why your doctor may send you a count test to help your diagnosis.